Groups involve power, rule, and authority {political science}|.
questions
How can groups have justice? How can laws maintain peace, stability, justice, and equality?
Which coercions can people use and when?
What rights and autonomy do people have, compared to need for community? When is it right to disobey? Why are there political obligations? Which property rights are best?
What balance of efficiency and equity is best? What balance of equity and liberty is best?
Which institutions are best? How can leaders best serve public?
How can power be effective and still have checks and balances?
Which state or society gives best relation between society and individual?
What is origin, purpose, or destiny of states or societies? Do states or societies evolve?
topics
Politics topics are authority, autonomy, class, coercion, collective responsibility, common good, consent, contract, equality, equity, justice, law, liberty, obligations, order, power, private, property, public, public interest, punishment, representation, revolution, rights, society, sovereignty, state, violence, voting, war, welfare, and well-being. Topics include good society and government, society and government processes, civilization growth, and prediction.
laws
Statements define rights and duties of citizens and other people.
values
Political values are about preferences, such as democratic or dictatorial and stability or change. People have feelings about war, peace, equality, and freedom. Attitudes toward political institutions depend on how institutions affect personal or general welfare. Revelation, intuition, reason, experience, or prophet teachings can determine political values.
conflict
Political-system members have some goals in common, but most goals differ, causing conflict. Government must resolve simple and complex conflicts. Conflicts also happen when people violate norms, threaten violence, or are third parties.
People can study nature and purposes of state, government, laws, power, rights, duties, and sovereignty {politics}.
People study how geography affects international politics {geopolitics}.
Values {ideology, politics}| justify government systems, political goals, and/or leaders. Members accept political-system justification, leadership standards, system organization, and government-operation theory {official ideology} {reigning ideology}. Ideologies change.
People can imagine ideal states {utopism}|.
Political systems have members {citizen}. Other people {non-citizen} can live in same community but not be political-system members.
In monarchies, people {nobility} can have hereditary and/or life titles. In England, the king or queen, and princes and princesses, are royalty. Non-royal titles descend as duke/duchess, marquess/marquessa (marquis/marquise), earl/countess (count/countess), viscount/viscountess, and baron/baroness. Life peers can be only barons or baronesses. Honorary non-noble titles descend as baronet/baronetess, knight/dame, and esquire. A baronet's wife is a lady, a knight's wife is a dame, and an esquire's wife may be a lady. England has the Prince of Wales and the Dukes of York, Kent, Gloucester, Cornwall, and Edinburgh.
Groups {political party} can engage in seeking power.
Most organizations derive from ideas shared by members and can exist independently of other groups or society. Society groups {parasitic organization} can depend on other groups or whole society for money and influence. Parasitic organizations derive from wants or ideas of people in other groups.
examples
Drug traffickers, organized crime, religious and other cults, and terror organizations are parasites on society.
effects
They gain money and/or power from others' wrong, illegal, or immoral ideas. They pose dangers to society because they are outside society and because they increase wrong, illegal, or immoral ideas.
defenses
To counter parasitic organizations, society must remove demand for satisfying wrong, illegal, or immoral wants or ideas. Perhaps, alternative ideas or activities work. Perhaps, society can satisfy wrong, illegal, or immoral wants or ideas, because alternatives are worse. Retaliation and punishment typically make remaining parasitic-group members more aggressive and more group oriented.
People can be liberal {left wing}.
People can be conservative {right wing}.
People {militant} can belong to ideological groups or be political agitators.
People {moderate} can be pragmatic and reasonable negotiators.
People {radical, person} {extremist} can advocate swift and violent change.
Objective or traditional standards exist for living {conservatism}|. People cannot and should not freely choose their style and behavior.
Individuals, and their freedoms and purposes, can be more important than states {liberalism}| {liberal democracy}.
principles
No objective standards for living exist, except to allow others equal freedom. People can freely choose styles and behaviors. Human autonomy is itself worthy. Freedom leads to the most experimentation and so to truth, while restriction only leads to pain and conflict. Forcing people to live certain ways is against psychology and causes revolt, but freedom brings tolerance.
requirements
Liberalism requires ability to choose, education, freedom, available choices, diverse society, virtue, and fulfillment of duties based on sacrifice, not on social bonds.
effects
Liberalism can erode family and community. Liberalism can promote associations that are good for people, rather than only traditional.
history
Liberalism began when state separated from church and allowed religious freedom and later other freedoms. As societies became more diverse, they removed controls from unregulatable things. Liberalism arose as capitalism, competition, markets, and individual consumers replaced community structures and their mutual obligations, caste systems, totalitarianism, and religious values.
People can want to return to previous ideals and practices {fundamentalism, politics}. Fundamentalism can be reaction to complexity and control loss. Revulsion over immorality, excess, and overbearingness can cause it. Need to maintain tradition to preserve personal, group, or national identity can cause it. Believing that people are bad and need controls can cause it. It can be a way to endure poverty.
Violent fundamentalism is not the same as fundamentalism. Violence is about power, insults to dignity, and desecration.
National identity can be the highest political and moral good {chauvinism, feeling}|, so nation has no limits relative to other nations.
Political-system members can feel national pride, and loyalty to nation {nationalism} {patriotism}|. Citizens defend and uphold nation. Perhaps, national character, built from shared language, religion, culture, and history, exists. Nationalism puts nation as highest good or object.
Communication networks and trade networks contribute to patriotism. Patriotism increases during wars over boundaries or in defense. Stronger central government favors patriotism. Educational system, one language, and one culture tend to increase patriotism.
People can be able to take action {freedom}|. Other people are unable to restrict action. Societies typically allow people to control their labor and property. Human autonomy is itself worthy. Freedom leads to the most experimentation and so to truth, while restriction only leads to pain and conflict. Forcing people to live certain ways is against psychology and causes revolt, but freedom brings tolerance. Societies provide more abilities for action but also more restrictions on actions.
People can have no interest in politics {indifference, politics}. Indifference results if expected rewards and influence are low and have low probability, or if everything is already good. Most people are indifferent.
Underdeveloped countries have increased demand for industrialization and wealth {rising expectations}, as they communicate with other nations.
Behavior toward people can be different {discrimination against people}, based on factors unrelated to goals or activities. Minorities typically face unjust and unequal treatment.
Communities can discriminate against and segregate black people {Jim Crow}|.
People can have to pay {poll tax}| polling place before voting.
Leaders can hire thugs to beat people and rob homes and shops {pogrom}|.
Politicians can receive free trips {junket, trip}| from people.
People with political power can give government jobs to friends and relatives {patronage}|.
Government projects can benefit only few legislator constituents {pork barrel}.
Politicians and businessmen can keep money {slush fund}| for private purposes, with no regular accounting.
Political winners can give patronage {spoils system}|.
Politicians can accumulate money {war chest} for use in political campaigns.
People can mutually adjust goals to reach agreement {compromise, politics}. Discussion, communication, and information availability aid compromise. Political parties compromise more. Legislatures compromise more.
Conditions can favor compromise. Parties already agree about most things. Conflict has been short. Conflict does not affect other conflicts. Economy is good. Mutual adjustment happened in the past. Both groups have equal power in general. Groups are moderate, rather than militant.
Power struggles can continue, with no conflict resolution and no behavior changes {deadlock}. Poor negotiation skills or poor communication causes deadlock. Both parties can believe no change is better than proposed changes. Mutual adjustment typically does not work if conflict is over norms, is widespread, or is about alternatives that are too far apart.
Legislators can trade votes {logrolling}| to pass two laws.
Politicians have principles {policy} guiding actions.
Nations can have barriers {iron curtain} to travel and communication.
People can feel chauvinism and aggression {jingoism}|.
The idea that USA should stretch from sea to sea {manifest destiny}| started in 1845.
Judicial and legal procedures follow standards {rule of law}| and encourage human rights, negotiated settlements, minimal force, moral authority, and orderly society.
Governments try to minimize hostile-force disruptions {security, politics}. Inconvenience, time, expense, and obtrusiveness can disrupt security. Security failures have costs. Time, money, and social factors determine security costs. Citizen and security-personnel training can minimize inconvenience, time, expense, and obtrusiveness and maximize security. Intelligence gathering can open possibilities for information abuses and data-obtaining methods.
Governments can obtain revenue by taking sales, property, income, wealth, estate, windfall, or value-added percentages {taxation}|. Only taxation provides government revenue.
purposes
Taxation provides money for defense, security, law enforcement, fire containment, ambulance, health services, public health, courts, legislatures, executive branch, foreign affairs, roads, transportation infrastructure, utilities, education, employment services, welfare programs, environmental programs, agriculture services, business services, regulation, and housing.
comparison
Governments can require fees, duties, and licenses, which typically cover administration expenses.
fairness
Taxation fairness requires that taxation has no loopholes. Fairness can require that people pay same marginal amounts. Fairness can require that people pay for what they get. Fairness does not require that people pay equal shares. Regressive taxes, such as property tax, sales tax, and value-added taxes, cannot be fair, because they do not account for people's ability to pay or for government value. Progressive taxes, such as income tax and wealth tax, can be fair. Progressive taxation can use people's income and consumption to determine fair taxation.
tax collection
Ideally, tax collection can require no work by citizens. Perhaps, people have accounts with governments. Taxes go into accounts, for government services and social-insurance programs. Government tracks money use, is accountable for investments, and provides high return rates. When people retire, have no job, or have disability, accounts send money to people and track expenses. Perhaps, no person just receives government money. Welfare recipients, for example, can have formal debts to governments. Governments are more accountable and can track policy effects better.
Authorities {government}| make and administer laws and have political offices.
authority
Governments need legitimate claims to authority.
comparative government
Governments differ in leaders, economic systems, political rights, and ideology.
consent to have government
Government assumes that society's people consent to state or community polity, voluntarily, knowledgeably, and decisively. Communities have allegiance oaths. People consent if they vote or do not leave. However, most people do not realize they consented. Perhaps, one's ancestors consented to losing some rights to gain security or other rights {social contract theory}, and people today honor that contract. Freely entered unwritten agreements to exchange something for something else, for mutual benefit, can be bases for social organizations. Democratic societies in which people are free and equal can depend on social contracts. However, most people are not aware of such contracts. Most likely, citizens have formed citizenship habits by socialization.
law
Law is not just ruler decrees. People that have obligations under law must have consented to laws. Laws can be good and correct for situations and participants. Laws can be unjust. Laws can be forms of force. Laws can be for community good, not for rulers. Will and reason make and obey laws. Legal decisions use legal and cultural history, morals, and current facts to interpret law.
types
Political-system classifications depend on location, geographical area, population, legal system, legal code, ethical codes, religious codes, or wealth. Political systems depend on who rules.
Most human groups {political system} involve power, rule, and authority. Political systems have interacting political institutions {political process}. Political systems differ in legitimacy, leadership, authority, number, independence, and influences.
States of unions or confederations can retain rights {states' rights}| that unions or confederations do not have.
Sovereigns do not have moral or other constraints on international relations, except to defend nation and people {political realism}. Spying, warring, killing, and other actions are correct if necessary to fulfill obligations.
Unified influential minorities always rule political systems {ruling elite hypothesis}. However, this hypothesis is not true, because political leaders always conflict.
Government rules by governed's consent {compact theory}, an idea from ancient Greece.
States result from contracts {social contract, government}| that express collective group will to provide government services for the common interest. Perhaps, one's ancestors consented to losing some rights to gain security or other rights, and people today honor that contract. However, most people are not aware of such contracts.
Tribes can have rule by mother {matriarchy}|.
Tribes can have rule by father {patriarchy}|.
Governments have administration, legislature, and judiciary {government branch}.
Government branches {judicial branch}| can determine and interpret laws and their consequences. Judges preside over courts, in which they interpret laws and assign punishments for breaking laws. Higher courts hear appeals from lower courts.
Presidents lead nations and administrations, or prime ministers elected by ruling party lead governments, or both {executive branch}|. Executive branch carries out laws.
Political systems have political roles or positions {office}, which enforce, create, or interpret laws.
Leaders can refuse to sign legislation and so prevent enactment {pocket veto}|.
Administrations include ministers {cabinet, government}| for government functions: foreign affairs, defense, health, education, welfare, commerce, internal affairs, agriculture, justice and law, treasury, transportation, police, intelligence, housing, cities, post office, and utilities.
Salaried people {civil service}| can work to execute policies and laws in the executive branch. Civil service is not military, judicial, or legislative.
City government can have equal commissioners elected from districts or at-large {commission plan}.
Cities have mayor's offices {mayoralty}|.
A person {president}| elected by popular vote can lead a nation and administration.
A person {prime minister}| elected by ruling party can lead a government and administration.
Government branches {legislative branch}| {legislature} can make laws. Congresses or parliaments can have one or two houses, such as Senate and House of Representatives.
Elected officials can meet {electoral college}| to vote for nation's leader.
Congresses or parliaments can have people {representative}| {legislator} elected from nation, state, county, or city districts. People can speak and act for groups.
Representatives can be from whole nation, state, county, or city {at-large}|.
Legislative rules {gag rule} can limit or stop debate.
Senators can defer to colleagues who request the floor {senatorial courtesy}|.
Back rooms {smoke-filled room} are where legislators make deals.
One candidate or law can receive all group votes or delegates {unit rule}|.
A parliament has rules of operation {parliamentary procedure} {legislative procedure} {rules of order}. Parliamentary procedure describes how to use main motions and their secondary motions, such as subsidiary motions, incidental motions, and privileged motions. Parliamentary procedure also describes how to use resolutions. It also describes nominating, voting, disciplining, appealing, paying dues, and drafting organization constitutions, charters, and bylaws. Parliamentary procedure typically allows majority rule while addressing minority concerns.
A motion can be to end the current session {adjournment}. It has precedence over the current main motion. A motion for adjournment include the time and place of the next meeting.
A parliament member can request an additional section to a motion {amendment, motion} for discussion. It is a secondary and subsidiary motion.
The chair or members can approve or correct the summary of the previous meeting {approve the minutes}.
A parliament member can introduce a proposed law {bill, law} for discussion and vote.
A parliament member can ask for immediate voting {call the question} {move the previous question} on the current motion. It has precedence over the current motion.
The chair can begin the session {call to order}.
Legislatures can end debate and vote {cloture}|.
A committee chair can report committee activities {committee report}.
A parliament member can hold the floor and speak at length against a bill {filibuster}.
The chair has a wooden hammer {gavel} and pad. One tap means that meeting has adjourned, a business item has completed, or members should sit (after an opening ceremony). Two taps means call to order. Three taps means that all members should stand (on the third tap). Four or more short taps means attend to the chair and restore order.
A parliament member can request an action {motion, law}| {making a motion} for discussion and vote.
The chair can ask if members want to introduce something {new business}.
The chair can allow a parliament member to speak {obtaining the floor}.
A meeting has {order of business}: call to order, roll call (optional), minutes, treasurer report, secretary reports (optional), other officer reports (optional), committee reports (optional), unfinished and postponed business, new business, program (optional), and adjournment.
A member can speak without prior recognition from the chair {out of order}.
Parliament can vote for a motion {pass a motion}. If the vote fails to get a majority, the motion dies. If the vote has a majority, the chair directs someone to take action to implement the motion.
A member can indicate a rule violation {point of order}.
Some motions require a waiting period {previous notice} before discussion.
The secretary can read his or her summary of the previous meeting {read the minutes}.
The secretary can ask each member if he or she is present {roll call}.
Following motions, at least one other person must approve the motion {second the motion}| {seconding a motion}. If no second, the motion dies. Nominations do not require seconds.
Following motions, a person can move to suspend discussion of the motion {tabling a motion}|. It has precedence over the current main motion.
The treasurer reports recent expenditures and revenue and states the current balance {treasurer's report}.
The chair can ask if members did not finish something at the previous meeting {unfinished business}.
Sessions can open to all members {plenary}|, or leaders can have all powers.
A minimum number {quorum}| must be present for organizations to make decisions.
Several rich educated people can rule {aristocracy}|. Rule depends on status.
Political rule can depend on achievement and intelligence {meritocracy}|.
Wealthy can rule {plutocracy}|.
Pluralism {pluralistic political system} {pluralistic system} allows many autonomous political subsystems. Societies can have more than few groups {pluralism, society} {diversity, society}. Pluralism can divide loyalties.
Natural law, tradition, treaty, and convention {legalism} can regulate or control power relations, as in peaceful international relations.
People or institutions can control others' behavior without their consent, supposedly for their good, as for children and incapacitated people {paternalism}|.
Communities {communism}| can control all life aspects for individual good and have no social or economic classes.
Government {tribal government} can depend on extended families. Tribalism conflicts with nationalism.
Government {centralized government} can try to control all political subsystems.
Governments {federalism} {confederation}| can coordinate autonomous states.
The people can rule {democracy}|. Democracy claims to allow government participation by more people, to increase people's autonomy, to increase equality, and to have the best procedure for reasoning and deciding. Democracy does not necessarily translate people's combined wills into expected decisions, because choices can have poor definition and people's self-interest is typically against public interest.
State districts can elect representatives to legislative bodies {parliamentary democracy}|. Legislature selects government leaders from its ranks, to form executive branch, which controls top government levels. Civil servants manage government bureaucracy.
The people can elect president to lead nation and propose and enforce laws {presidential democracy}|. Legislature, elected separately, makes laws.
Dictators or several people can rule {autocracy}|, but political institutions are free and power does not centralize.
One person can have non-hereditary rule {despotism}|.
One person can gain authority through force and hold all authority {dictatorship}|.
Governments {fascism}| can control all life aspects, supposedly for public good. Fascism often has ethnocentrism and class society.
Police power can be for political purposes {police state}|.
Government can be by religious leaders {theocracy}|.
Governments {totalitarianism}| can try to eliminate all political subsystems or their freedoms. Identification with strong leader, vicarious sense of power through aggression against other groups, and feeling of belonging to a strong political party contribute to totalitarianism.
Rulers can have all power {tyranny}|.
King and queens assume power by heredity or through election by nobles {monarchy}|. Monarchs have absolute power.
Constitution and separate legislature, executive, and judicial systems can control ruler power {constitutional monarchy}|. King or queen can be head of state, with only ceremonial power.
Other political systems influence political systems {foreign relations}|. Mutual agreements establish precise boundaries between political systems.
National courts can recognize other-state laws and judicial decisions {comity of nations}| {comity of states}.
People can manage relations among nations {diplomacy}|.
People can practice diplomacy {statecraft}|.
States can form mutual-benefit associations {commonwealth}|.
In states, regions can have self-government {home rule}| over local affairs.
Governments {outside government} outside geographic regions can control regions.
Outside governments can control native populations through native leaders or governors {colonialism}|.
Outside governments can control native populations through governors that replace existing native rulers {direct rule}.
States can dominate other states {hegemony}|.
Outside governments can rule another country through economic power {imperialism}|.
Outside governments can control native populations through controlled native rulers {indirect rule}.
Colonial rulers have responsibility to govern well {white man's burden}.
After war, winner can demand that loser pay {reparation}| for repairs or as punishment.
Conquerors can require conquered peoples to regularly pay {tribute}|.
Foreign governments can have offices {consulate}| in other cities.
Governments have main offices {embassy}|, led by ambassadors, in other countries.
People {emigrant} {émigré}| can leave countries.
People can come to new countries {immigration}| from other countries.
Two or more countries or alliances can have equal power {balance of power}|.
Countries that pursue aggressive policies against each other always are under threat of war {cold war}|.
Countries can be not overtly aggressive against each other {peace}. Peace involves no war threats.
conditions
Countries have no need to covet each other's resources, because they are wealthy countries, resources trade freely at fair prices, and/or workers can work in both countries freely. Peoples share language, religion, or democratic values. Aggression has certain and overwhelming punishment or is certainly harmful to country. Negotiations are fair and making progress. Rhetoric, calculated political gain, or inflammatory events do not arouse aggressive feelings. The parties tire of war and cannot fight longer. Peace increases with independence, ethical sense, justice, opportunity, trade, cooperation, conflict resolution, non-violence, law, order, and power.
conditions: brotherhood
Good war alternatives include having relations among nations, groups, and individuals that are like brothers in good families. Some brothers are older, smarter, and/or stronger. Brothers cooperate and compete but use their qualities and skills to make sure other brothers are good and successful. Even a bad brother is still a brother, whom others try to reform. Humans need brotherhood, not warring clans or tribes.
emotion
War follows emotion, typically increasing hatred and anger. Jesus' philosophy shows a strategy to lessen current and future conflicts, because it depends on truth about humans and societies and because it follows reason.
comparison to war
Countries cannot always choose peace. War is justifiable when it can reduce polarization, reduce human suffering, conserve resources, and reduce costs. War is justifiable when it serves same aims as peace. War is only justifiable by defense commensurate with offense.
Countries can threaten and/or act against other countries {aggression, politics}.
cause
Aggression tries to gain resources or establish safe borders. Aggression against another country depends on citizen feelings about their country, knowledge of other country, and approval from country. Fear of retaliation or punishment inhibits aggression.
purposes
Aggression can settle status, dominance, and possession. Aggressive behavior is also for defense and self-protection.
People or non-government groups opposed to society's politics can make physical or psychological attacks on society's people or equipment {terrorism}|.
causes
People can perceive previous society or government actions as being unjust, showing disrespect, causing suffering, or arousing opposition. Outside control, desecration, exploitation, immorality, corruption, and/or political tricks can cause frustration, aggression, and terrorism.
Current terrorism has grown from frustrations, perceived desecrations, actual corruption, and Western political machinations, including Israel creation, propping up corrupt and immoral leaders, and profiting from oil, that have wrenched Middle East.
purposes
Terrorism intends to inflict pain and suffering as punishments for perceived crimes. Terrorism intends to disrupt and lessen government power and show opposition power. Terrorism can be politics. Terrorism can be revenge on societies for past actions. Terrorism hopes to cause reactions and thus further polarization and emotion, leading to more power, money, and participation on terrorist's side.
nature: war
Terror acts are war acts against societies by non-governmental entities. As non-governmental entities, terrorist tactics are like guerilla war. Like war, terrorism feeds on success to gather more power, money, and participation. Unlike war, terrorism does not significantly reduce population, decrease resources, capture territory, threaten government overthrow, or subjugate people. Unlike war, terrorism originates from within society or society subcultures, not from other geographic regions. Unlike war, terrorism has few resources compared to society.
nature: occurrence
Because they originate within society, terrorist attacks can happen at all locations and times, by many means. Terrorist preparations vary little from everyday activities.
nature: attitudes
Attitudes toward death are also different than in war. To terrorists, death can be victory.
nature: attack types
War rules do not constrain terrorism, which can involve toxins, poisons, and radioactive agents dispersed in air or water.
tactics against
Countries cannot defeat terrorism in same ways as in wars. Because opponents are unknown and have no location, armies cannot face them directly or surround them. Unlike war, states cannot impose defeat or surrender but only encourage it. Before defeat, terrorists can move to locations outside society's jurisdiction.
tactics against: money and time
Societies must spend money and time for offense. This accomplishes terrorist goals.
tactics against: reduce individual rights
Defense against terrorism can require monitoring all activities and individuals. Defense can require that society's interest be above individual rights. Defense reduces privacy and freedom. This accomplishes terrorist goals.
tactics against: force
Offense against terrorism can require ability to strike with strong force at all locations and times. Police and army must be everywhere and obvious. Societies are more like police states. This accomplishes terrorist goals.
tactics against: courage
Alternative responses to terrorist attacks can be courage against fear, stoicism about loss, rationality about decisions, resolution to rebuild and replace, determination to return society to normal, slowness to revenge, and readiness to correct economic, political, and social injustices. Societies can have no fear and no appeal to lower emotions. The best strategy is to minimize number of people, groups, and nations with grievances and to minimize opportunities through economic, financial, legal, political, and social means. Military means are for commensurate defense only. Such responses do not accomplish terrorist goals and cause no increase in violence.
Nations can overtly aggress on other states {war}|.
causes
Wars can result from competition for scarce resources, usually when aggressive leaders want neighboring-country resources. War can result when countries want to reverse or punish another government's illegal action or unjust legal action.
factors
War decisions consider objectives, means, strategy, tactics, morals, war rules, defeat or victory probability, defeat or victory consequences, third-party effects, and negotiations. War has high risk of defeat or resource exhaustion.
strategy
Strategy requires using knowledge of enemy to neutralize weapons and resources in short and long term.
alternatives
States engage in international relations, diplomacy, negotiations, and war to try to achieve goals. War is adjunct to, or extension of, aggressive international relations and diplomacy. Negotiations precede and follow all wars and often accompany wars. Both war and negotiation are trials of strength between countries.
winning
Countries with larger size, higher technology, more wealth, more freedom, more emotion, and stronger economic systems tend to win at war and negotiations. To reach victory in war, countries must diminish opponent physical and moral force sufficiently so it will surrender or negotiate.
time
War cannot last indefinitely, because resources become exhausted and people grow weary of constant fear, emotion, aggressive impulses, and death. War length depends on overt aggressive behavior, available resources, and people's will. War can lead to negotiation when both countries' physical and moral force diminishes sufficiently.
effects
War is costly in resources and people, polarizes people and groups, causes less rule of law, reduces liberties, increases authoritarianism, adds grievances and injustices, increases hatred and anger, adds uncertainty and risk to all activities, increases alliances with corrupt and authoritarian regimes, strains relations between partners, reduces ideas and cultural diversity, disrupts markets, and neglects education, social services, and crime-fighting. Politics typically takes major turn as peace replaces war. Society takes time to recover old habits and ideas and typically takes several years to return to normalcy. During those years, there is less employment, more crime, more stress on people and families, and low basic resources.
At war end, both sides have exhaustion and low resources. Tight economic conditions harm many people.
War encourages less rule of law. Civil liberties decrease and due process decreases. Authoritarianism increases. War causes more grievances and injustices.
War removes the high moral ground from a country, bringing it to same level as adversary. War thus erodes moral authority, and this can affect ability to lead.
War always causes secondary effects, typically bad, since many people have relations to people affected by war.
War focuses people's concentration against identified enemy. People neglect intellectual pursuits, at cost to culture.
People can use the name of religion to broaden conflict.
effects: polarization
War is polarizing. Polarization tends to lead to future conflict and aggravates current conflicts.
effects: hate
After war, many soldiers and fallen-warrior relatives remain. Hatred for enemy, and anger at suffering, linger long after war, posing danger of new uprising, sabotage, terrorism, and mental-health problems. War makes more people, groups, and nations angry and vengeful. War sows seeds of more war. War cannot eliminate all warriors.
justifications
Ethicists allow justified war {just war}. In just war, military makes defense commensurate with offense. Just war has support from majority of citizens. Just war can reduce human suffering, conserve resources, and reduce costs in the future. War can recover justice, equal opportunity, rule of law, and freedom.
Countries can trade with all nations equally {open door}.
Nations can exchange trading rights {reciprocity}.
Government documents {passport}| can certify identities of citizens traveling abroad.
Countries can give right {visa}| to enter and stay to aliens.
Group members can want to gain authority and influence {leadership, politics}, inside or outside government.
purposes
Leaders want power to achieve goals, to impose values on others, or to exercise for its own sake.
types
Leaders can emphasize tasks or social-emotional bonds.
factors
Leadership depends on activity, expertise, and acceptance. People can be already powerful. People can seek power. Politically involved people are active participants, have desire for knowledge, have interest, and have concern. Apolitical people are the majority.
factors: personality
Leaders are confident, have political skills, value power, want power for self or group, have motives, and want to use power for goals. However, strong power drives can alienate voters and supporters. Powerful people have more resources and skills, know how to use them, and value results.
political resources
Leaders can dispense rewards and penalties, such as money, police, privileges, weapons, and status. Political resources help retain power, but leaders must conserve political resources. Autocracies typically have more political resources than democracies.
negatives
Leaders must be dishonest, do opposite of promised, kill innocents, and break other moral principles, either for greater public good or for staying in power. This behavior can destroy authority, break trust, hurt more people, corrupt, and set poor example.
Political leaders try to show that their powers and actions are necessary {authority, politics}.
False promises and claims, and appeals to prejudices {demagoguery}|, can gain power.
Political leaders try to show that their actions, influence, government, goals, and values are legal {legitimacy}|. Legitimacy derives from political skill, group pride, personal dignity, tradition, and good conscience. If legitimacy is low, government must use high rewards and penalties {political resources}, such as money, police, privileges, weapons, and status, to retain power.
People try to change other people's behavior, using political techniques {political influence}. Other people resist change.
measure
Change amount, compliance probability, change scope, and number of people measure influence. Influence relates to one's position in hierarchy, people's judgments about person's power, number and scope of decisions made, and control over decisions. Influence also changes people's mentality.
People can feel that they have changed and/or complied. Change is hard to measure, because people typically conceal initial behavior, ideas, or bargaining position with threats, bluffs, or displays of strength. Influence {reliable influence} can be high if compliance probability is high.
methods
People can use espionage, research, counter-threats, and counter-displays of force to influence. Influence {coercive influence} can use threats, fear, punishment, torture, imprisonment, death, or loss. Influence can use rewards, such as money, status, prestige, and power. Coercion can thus be positive or negative.
means
Power amount is rewards that someone can give to others, such as money, status, prestige, and power. Property, wealth, birth, force, or election can cause unequal power, rule, and authority distribution. Political-system members have unequal control of means to influence others' behavior, because people have different specializations, social inheritances, economic inheritances, genetics, and political skills.
Government control leads to resources {power, politics}. Physical resources and organizations {exchange-power} or people organized under leaders or principles {coordination-power} can cause power. Power is not sum of factors but multiplies with current power. Power causes action. The struggle for power is constant. Power involves cooperation, which mainly involves communication. Power involves competition. Retaliation and punishment can cause more cooperation or confrontation.
People can buy political or religious offices {simony}|.
Groups can try to overthrow governments or replace powerful social groups {revolution, politics}|. Upper or middle classes, not lower classes, typically lead revolutions. Revolutionary governments centralize power, include more groups, and are more ruthless and vigorous. Radicals intimidate opposition and are more organized and emotional than most citizens. Revolution's confusion makes most people stay out of political processes. At end of most revolutions, moderate and radical factions fight until one loses or withdraws. After fight ends, strong leaders typically take over {period of reaction} {reaction period}, rebuild or connect to old institutions, ban extremists, and restore old national goals.
revolution causes
Deprivation, such as starvation or high inflation, can cause revolutions. Coercion to pay high taxes or to be soldiers can cause them. They are more likely if many people know alternatives to current situation. They are more likely if ruling group is weak or divided. They are more likely if many people question government authority.
Groups from outside government can take over governments or political power {coup d'état}|, using intimidation and force.
Groups can violently try to overthrow governments {insurrection}|.
Military leaders {junta}| can try to take over nations.
People can demand removal of unpopular leaders or objects {rebellion}|.
People can register to vote {voter registration} {registering to vote}, with city or county voting registrar, at courthouse or by mail, upon reaching voting age of 18 or after moving to new addresses. Registration is free. People can select political party or declare no party affiliation. If no party selected, people can vote in general elections and for propositions but usually not in primary elections. Only citizens can vote.
Votes can be unanimous {acclamation}|.
People can declare candidacy {hat in the ring}.
Society's members can decide their collective actions without interference from outside {self-determination}|.
Elections {by-election}| can be not on regular election dates.
Governments can submit questions to populace for direct vote {plebiscite}|.
Groups can have test votes {straw vote}.
Humans have rights {natural rights}| as persons. Rights allow actions or benefits, such as health, education, opportunity, life, and happiness.
dignity
Rights are about people's interests, as persons, and so are about dignity.
types
Rights can be claims, immunities, freedoms, and authorizations. Claims are rights of people against other people. Duties are what people owe to other people. Immunities cancel duties and claims. Freedoms, such as freedoms of speech, religion, and association, concern only individuals, unless they conflict with others' freedoms. Authorizations are grants to act, for situations where there are no rights or rights are not clear.
summary
Human rights include freedom and opportunity to engage in businesses, associations, or activities that do not abridge others' rights. They include safe and nutritious food. They include safe, clean, and well-designed shelter. They include clean water. They include adequate sanitation. They include clean air. They include public health measures, personal health maintenance, prescription drugs, rehabilitation, mental health care, dental care, and eye care. They include complete and equal educational opportunities. They include equal and quick justice. They include equal employment opportunity. They include association with others for pleasure, business, or other purposes. They include freedom of travel. They include access to all public information channels. They include freedom of residence. They include freedom from crimes against people. They include freedom from interference in private life. They include religious freedom. They include habeas corpus.
All laws' purpose is to protect human rights. No law makes people's rights unequal {equal rights}. All people are aware they have equal rights and what those rights are.
Equal rights {equality, people} are for people actually born, without distinction. Felons and people with quarantinable diseases have diminished rights only as necessary and relative to their felonies and diseases. People can be equal in power, opportunity, resources, legal matters, health, education, welfare, income, freedom, or respect.
society inequality
Political inequality depends on preventing classes, such as the landless, from holding office, voting, or petitioning. Legal inequality prevents making contracts, initiating actions under civil law, or prosecuting. Social inequality is about castes, segregation, discrimination, status, subordination, slavery, or deference. Class inequality is about aristocracy, education, property, wealth, and heredity. Society can choose to have no inequality, prevent inequality, or allow natural inequalities.
Rights {discrimination, rights} are the same no matter sex, race, color, language, age, religion, health, political belief, national origin, social class or status, property, sexual preference, birth circumstances, residence, citizenship, publications, opinions, or morals. No person can abridge another's rights.
People have right to be free {liberty} from most controls.
Group activities {lobbying} must be public.
There should be no title or privileges of nobility {nobility, rights}.
No group has greater power than any combination of two other groups {power distribution}.
People have right to clothing {clothing rights}.
People have right to protection and aid after natural or other disasters {disaster rights}.
People have right to have children {family rights}. Children have right to be free of parents. People have right to divorce. People have right to marriage of equal partners, with no special role for either husband or wife. People have right to choose to marry or not marry. People have right to all sexual information.
People have right to satisfy basic needs for healthful food {food rights}.
People have right to complete medical and health care and preventative maintenance {health care rights} {medical care rights}.
People have right to shelter with sanitary facilities and adequate warmth and coolness {shelter rights}.
People have right to warmth and coolness {warmth and coolness rights}.
People have right to buy and sell property {buying and selling rights}.
People have right to own property, with or without others {ownership rights}.
Government cannot take private property for public use without notice, need, and just compensation {public use rights}.
There should be no hiring discrimination {work rights}. People have right to employment. People have right to work anywhere. People have equal opportunity for all jobs. People have right to refuse to work in unsafe or unhealthful conditions. People have right to safe and healthful jobs. People have right to fair wage or salary and enough pay for basic wants. People have right to social security for disability, retirement, and dependents.
People have right to fair hearings {fair hearing}.
People have right to leave jobs {quitting}.
People have right to retire {retirement}.
There should be no slavery {slavery}, involuntary servitude, indentured service, or child labor.
People have right to vacations and holidays {vacation}.
People have right to reasonable working hours {working hours}.
People have right not to join unions or other work organizations {union rights}.
People have right to organize and form unions {organizing}.
There should be no selling of bodies, parts, or functions {body rights}.
People have control over life {control of life}, to give them hope and power.
People have right to die and ability to delegate authority to terminate life {death rights}.
Fetus has very limited rights {fetus rights}, subordinate to all mother's rights. Unborn people are under mother's complete and total authority, without interference by other people, because fetuses are not yet legal persons.
People have right to life, with no death penalty {life rights}.
People have right to escape sacrifice and punishment for refusal to sacrifice {sacrifice rights}.
People have right of self-defense by any means {self-defense rights}.
People have right to sexual satisfaction through any means not abridging other-people's rights {sex rights}.
People should have freedom of appearance and styles {style rights}.
There should be no torture, no degrading behavior, and no cruel behavior {torture rights}.
Disabled people have right to access {access, disabled} public places.
Disabled people have right to education {education, disabled}.
Disabled people have right to equal treatment {equal treatment, disabled}.
Disabled people have right to medical treatment {medical treatment rights}.
Disabled people have right to normal life {normal life rights}.
There should be no brainwashing {brainwashing}.
There should be no censorship or harassment {censorship right}.
Copyrighting is automatic {copyright right}.
Intentional copyright violation {copyright violation} accrues damages, but unintentional violation does not.
People have right to refuse to disclose sources or information {disclosure, sources}.
There should be no false advertising {false advertising right}.
There should be no false communication with intent to harm {intent to harm}.
There should be no libel or slander {libel, rights} {slander, rights}.
There should be no propaganda {propaganda, politics}.
People have access to all public information {public information rights}.
People have right to assemble peacefully {assembly right}.
People have right of equal access {equal access}, unless it affects safety.
There should be no forced membership in any group {membership rights}.
People have right of religious belief, practice, organization, publicity, assembly, action, and instruction {religion rights}. There should be no coercion.
People have right to petition legislature, executive, and judiciary about grievances {petition right}.
Grievances must be public, officials must act on them in reasonable time, and officials must report results to petitioner {grievance right}.
People have right of asylum from persecution. There should be no exiles. There should be no visas or passports {residence and travel rights}.
There should be no identification papers {identification papers}.
People have right to complete education {education rights}. People have right to easy school access. People have right to access to all cultural events. People have right to complete coverage of all subjects. People have right to free schooling. People have right to equal opportunity. People have right to safe schooling. People have right to qualified and safe teachers.
People have right to choose public school {school choice}.
There should be no cultural-heritage destruction {cultural heritage}.
States do not have rights of persons {state rights}. There should be no martial law, except after disaster and then martial-law removal as soon as possible. All people have equal opportunity to be in government at all levels. There should be no political crimes. All groups in society have representation. Birth or declaration establishes citizenship.
There should be no crimes {crime against state} against states and no treason.
Enforcing laws {enforcement, law} obligating people to states is by withdrawing privileges, not doing other actions.
Representatives must be available to voters {representative rights}. People have right of representation based on district and government unit. Representatives are district residents.
People have right to safety {safety and security}. There should be no police state or police actions. There should be no terrorism, violence, or war.
There should be no deadly weapons {deadly weapons}, except for registered owners.
People have right to privacy of person, effects, and actions {privacy rights}.
Only authorized people can conduct searches and seizures and only after obtaining due authorization {searches rights}.
There should be no surveillance {surveillance}, observation, or harassment.
Elected representatives levy taxes {taxation rights}. Taxes are subject to referendum. All taxes are fair. Only taxes are income taxes, billed to people by sliding percentage.
All trade is free of tariffs, duties, quotas, and protectionist measures. There should be no restraints on commerce, except for health and safety {trade rights}.
There should be fair competition {fair competition}.
There should be fair dealing {fair dealing}.
Military affairs are always under civilian control {military rights}. No soldiers can be on private property or use private property. There should be no military action against residents. No government or leader can force people to serve in military, go to war, or prepare for war. There should be no permanent military and no standing army. Government cannot require people to participate in events organized for or by state.
There should be military conscription or registration {draft, military}.
There should be no bombs, machine guns, bazookas, rockets, atomic weapons, or similar weapons {mass destruction}.
Government cannot require people to perform services {service to state} to state.
People have right to keep and bear small arms, for regulated militias {gun rights}.
Governments register all weapons {weapon registration}.
People have right to vote for, vote against, or abstain {voting rights}.
People have right to vote {suffrage}|.
There should be elections {elections} at regular intervals.
People have right to work for or against voting issues {advocacy}.
All district residents are eligible {eligibility}.
There should be fair campaigning {fair campaigning}.
People have right to receive election and issue notices {notice of election}.
Public voting is by secret ballot {secret ballot}.
Law administration should be fair, impartial, and quick {administration, laws}.
Laws should be fair and impartial {law rights}. Laws have time limits.
People have right to rule of law and equal protection {protection of law} under laws.
People have entitlement to remedies {remedy} for all rights violations.
People have right to contest charge {charge contesting}.
Authorities can only detain people if they make documented cases under oath before judges, with all names public {detention rights}.
People have right to due process of law {due process right}.
There should be no detention for acts declared illegal later {ex post facto right}.
There should be no excessive bail {excessive bail}.
There should be no false accusations {false accusation}.
There should be no false arrest {false arrest} or detention.
People have right to writ of habeas corpus {habeas corpus right}.
Courts and judges are available quickly and impartially {quick justice}.
People have right to quick and fair hearings in courts {quick trial}.
People have right to request detention review {review of detention}.
Appeals are to review procedures, not decisions {appeal right}.
There should be no capital punishment {capital punishment right}.
People have right to retrial {retrial after conviction} if false testimony, unfair jurors, incompetent legal counsel, new evidence, or judicial irregularities affected outcome.
There should be no cruel, degrading, or unusual punishment {unusual punishment}.
States cannot impose worse sentences {worse sentence} after imposing sentences.
Actual damages {actual damages} are estimates by independent evaluators.
There should be no excessive fine {excessive fine}.
Lawyer's fees {fee, lawyer} {lawyer fee} {legal fee} can depend on schedules, not percentages.
Punitive damages are fixed percentages of actual damages {punitive damages right}.
People have right to know all charges {trial rights}. People have right to jury. People have right to public or private trials. People have right to question all witnesses. States cannot try acquitted people again on similar charges.
People have right to expert testimony {expert testimony}.
People have right to impartial trials {impartial trial}.
People have presumption of innocence until proven guilty {innocence until guilty}.
People have right to competent lawyers {legal representation}.
States cannot force people to witness against themselves {self-incrimination}.
He lived 1018 to 1092, was minister for thirty years to first Qaznavids then Seljuk ruler Malek Shah, and founded Nezamiyeh School of Baghdad.
He was Prince of Gurgan or Gorgan [1049 to 1090].
He lived 1767 to 1830. He opposed social-contract ideas of Rousseau. He advocated privacy, individual rights, freedom to gain property, democracy by representatives, and limited powers for government parts. Diversity and autonomy require private life.
He lived 1773 to 1836. Democracy by majority gives the most people the best chance to maximize happiness, because people act by self-interest.
He lived 1817 to 1862 and was New England Transcendentalist. He advocated return to nature. He advocated non-violent disobedience of unjust laws, and acceptance of punishment, to force repeal or modification.
He lived 1837 to 1923, was general, and as engineer built Galveston Seawall.
He lived 1876 to 1936 and studied skill and privilege, loyalty, and power. Political parties tend toward oligarchy, authoritarianism, and bureaucracy {iron law of oligarchy}.
He lived 1893 to 1950 and was Marxist.
He lived 1858 to 1941.
He lived 1902 to 1989, was Dewey's and Cohen's student, and was democratic socialist.
He lived 1903 to 1987 and was conservative.
He lived 1909 to 1993 and invented Parkinson's laws. People rise to level at which they are incompetent and then stay there {Parkinson's law}.
He lived 1884 to 1977. Universal human ethical thinking and feeling preferences determine political values.
He lived 1902 to 1978 and invented Model of Communication: Who (says) What (to) Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect.
He lived 1901 to 1976.
He lived 1904 to 1980.
He lived 1916 to 1970.
He lived 1919 to 2003.
He lived 1915 to ?.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225